International concern, excess deaths

Research and data to make progress against the world’s largest problems Australia 9% Canada 3% Denmark 30% England 20% Finland 9% France 25% Germany 43% Hungary 11% Ireland 20% Netherlands 37% Norway 28% New Zealand 17% Poland 21% Portugal 6% Romania – 4% Scotland 13% South Korea 18% Slovakia 2% Sweden 9% Switzerland 12% Taiwan 25% United States 12% Sir Austin Bradford Hill (1965) Consistency / Reproducibility Consistent findings observed by different persons in different places with different samples strengthens the likelihood of an effect Temporality The effect has to occur after the cause (often with a delay) Plausibility A plausible mechanism between cause and effect is helpful UK,